Biblical Literacy in America, Past and Present

By Dr. Daniel Botkin

“ “Atheists, Agnostics, Mormons and Jews Score Best on Religious Knowledge Survey.” These are the results of a nationwide poll conducted by The Pew Forum this past summer. According to previous surveys, 60% of American adults say that religion is “very important” to them. But this latest survey reveals “that large numbers of Americans are uninformed about the tenets, practices, history and leading figures of major faith traditions — including their own.”

Here are just two examples that demonstrate Americans’ ignorance of the Bible. Only 63% of Americans know that Genesis is the first book of the Bible. Only 71% know that Jesus was born in Bethlehem — in spite of the popular Christmas song “O Little Town of Bethlehem.”

The poll of 3,412 adults consisted of 32 questions. The following shows how many of the 32 questions each group of respondents, on average, answered correctly:

• Atheist/Agnostic 20.9

• Jewish 20.5

• Mormon 20.3

• White evangelical Protestant…17.6

• White Catholic 16.0

• White mainline Protestant. 15.8

• Nothing in particular 15.2

• Black Protestant… 13.4

• Hispanic Catholic 11.6

One person posted this comment on a Christian Web site: “No big surprise. Believers think with their hearts; nonbelievers think with their heads.” To which another person responded: “Actually, everyone thinks with their heads. Believers just think less.”…”

(this article is an excerpt from the January–February 2011edition of the Sabbath Sentinel)

To read the rest of this article, which starts on page 10, click this link: https://biblesabbath.org/media/TSSJanFeb2011.pdf

The Oldest Papyri That Mentions the Ten Commandments
By Kelly McDonald, Jr.

A papyrus is a form of paper made from a plant in Egypt. It was commonly used for personal or business writings. The Nash Papyrus was found in Egypt and dates to the mid to late second century BC (150-100 BC). This was in the waning period of the Ptolemaic dynasty. It is a short papyri containing a list of the Ten Commandments followed by the Shema prayer (Deut. 6:4).

It is important for several reasons – chiefly because it is the oldest surviving papyri which listed the Ten Commandments (outside of the Bible). It is also a confirmation of the priestly order mentioned in the Mishnah, which states that the Ten Commandments were read and then the Shema (Mishnah 5.1). A picture of the Nash Papyrus is located at the end of this article.

Below, we have an English translation of the papyrus from Burkitt:

“1 [ . I am Jalhwe thy God that [brought] thee out of the land of E[gypt:]

2 [thou shalt not hav]e other gods be[fore] me. Thou shalt not make [for thyself an image]

3 [or any form] that is in the heavens above, or that is in the earth [beneath,]

4 [or that is in the waters beneath the earth. Thou shalt not bow down to them [nor]

5 [serve them, for] I am Jahwe thy God, a jealous God visiting the iniquity]

6 [of fathers upon sons to the third and to the fourth generation unto them that hate me, [and doing]

7 [kindness unto thousands] unto them that love me and keep my commandments. Thou shalt [not]

8 [take up the name of Jahwe] thy God in vain, for Jahwe will not hold guiltless [him that]

9 [taketh up his name in vain. Remember the day of the Sabbath [to hallow it:]

10 [six days thou shalt work and do all thy business, and on the [seventh day,]

11 a Sabbath for Jahwe] thy God, thou shalt not do therein any business, [thou]

12 [and thy son and thy daughter,] thy slave and thy handmaid, thy ox and thy ass and all thy [cattle,]

13 [and thy stranger that is] in thy gates. For six days did Ja[hwe make]

14 [the heaven]s and the earth, the sea and all th[at is therein,]

15 and he rested [on the] seventh day; therefore Jahwe blessed [the]

16 seventh day and hallowed it. Honour thy father and thy mother, that]

17 it may be well with thee and that thy days may be long upon the ground [that]

18 Jahwe thy God giveth thee. Thou shalt not do adultery. Thou shalt not do murder. Thou shalt [not]

19 [st]eal. Thou shalt not [bear] against thy neighbour vain witness. Thou shalt not covet [the]

20 [wife of thy neighbour. Thou shalt] not desire the house of thy neighbour, his field, or his slave,]

21 [or his handmaid, or his o]x, or his ass, or anything that is thy neighbour’s. [Blank]

22 [(?) And these are the statutes and the judgements that Moses commanded the [sons of]

23 [Israel] in the wilderness, when they went forth from the land of Egypt. Hea[r]

24 [0 Isra]el: Jahwe our God, Jahwe is one; and thou shalt love]

25 [Jahwe thy G]o[d with al]1 t[hy heart … . ].”

Translation from: Burkitt, F.C. “The Hebrew Papyrus of the Ten Commandments”. The Jewish Quarterly Review, 15, 1903, pp 392-408.

God bless!

Kelly McDonald, Jr.
BSA President – www.biblesabbath.org

A Picture of the Nash Papyrus (public domain):

Is the Law of God Bondage?

By Kelly McDonald, Jr.

One of the claims made by people is that the Law of God, including the Sabbath, is bondage. In this article, we will look at verses used to substantiate this idea and answer the question. But first, let’s look and see what God and the disciples of Jesus said about the Law of God.

Deut. 30:11-14 – “11 For this commandment which I command you today is not too hard for you or too distant. 12 It is not in heaven, that you should say, “Who will go up for us to heaven, bring it to us, and proclaim it to us, that we may do it?” 13 Neither is it beyond the sea, that you should say, “Who will go over the sea for us, bring it to us, and proclaim it to us, that we may do it?” 14 But the word is very near to you, in your mouth and in your heart, that you may do it.” (WEB)

I John 5:2-3 – “By this we know that we love the children of God, when we love God and keep His commandments. For this is the love of God, that we keep His commandments. And His commandments are not burdensome.” (NIV)

James 1:25 – “But he who looks into the perfect law of freedom and continues, not being a hearer who forgets, but a doer of the work, this man will be blessed in what he does.” (NIV)

In Deut. 30:11-14, God said that His commandments not hard to understand or difficult to observe. In the New Testament, John attested that the law was not burdensome and James called it the ‘law of liberty’. If the disciples of Christ did not think that the Law was bondage, then where did people get the idea today?

The Sabbath, for instance, gives us freedom from work every seventh day. How can that be viewed as bondage? There are three places in the New Testament typically used to claim that the Law of God is bondage. We will look at each of these verses and explain the meaning. The first of these is Acts 15:10-11.

Acts 15:10-11

“10 Now therefore why do you tempt God, that you should put a yoke on the neck of the disciples which neither our fathers nor we were able to bear? 11 But we believe that we are saved through the grace of the Lord Jesus, just as they are” (WEB, bold emphasis mine).

What is the “yoke that neither we nor our fathers have been able to bear”? Some have claimed that this refers to the Ten Commandments. One way to confirm or deny any claim about Scripture is to compare it with other Bible verses. We already looked at several quotes in the New Testament about the Law of God, and none of them said that the law was bondage.

In Acts 15, the apostles and elders met to consider if circumcision was a requirement for Gentiles to be saved. In this account, the Pharisees also pushed for observance of the law to be saved (Acts 15:5). The fact that the Pharisees were involved is an important detail when we consider the interpretation of Acts 15. Context matters. Here’s what Jesus said about them:

“The scribes and the Pharisees sit on Moses’ seat. 3 All things therefore whatever they tell you to observe, observe and do, but don’t do their works; for they say, and don’t do. 4 For they bind heavy burdens that are grievous to be borne, and lay them on men’s shoulders; but they themselves will not lift a finger to help them” (Matthew 23:2-4, WEB, bold emphasis mine).

By the time of Jesus, the Jewish leaders had developed an entire code of oral law which added man-made rules to how to keep the commandments of God. The Pharisees were the most scrupulous observers of this oral law. Jesus called this a heavy burden.

When we compare Matthew 23:2-4 and Acts 15:10-11, the meaning becomes clear. The yoke is not the Law of God, but the man-made traditions of the Pharisees and scribes. In Acts 15, they determined that salvation doesn’t come through circumcision or man-made rules, but by the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ.

CLICK HERE to read more about Acts 15.

Galatians 4:22-26

The second passage utilized in this discussion is Galatians 4:22-26, which is listed below:

“22 For it is written that Abraham had two sons, one by the servant, and one by the free woman. 23 However, the son by the servant was born according to the flesh, but the son by the free woman was born through promise. 24 These things contain an allegory, for these are two covenants. One is from Mount Sinai, bearing children to bondage, which is Hagar. 25 For this Hagar is Mount Sinai in Arabia, and answers to the Jerusalem that exists now, for she is in bondage with her children. 26 But the Jerusalem that is above is free, which is the mother of us all” (WEB).

When we consider the story of Abraham, we know that there were two initial sons born to him. One came through Hagar and the other came through Sarah. We know from the story that the incident with Hagar came through the flesh and was not conceived in faith. God’s promise was that the child would be born through Sarah – this eventually happened when Isaac was born.

Paul then stated that these women are figurative for two covenants: the covenant from Mount Sinai and the New Covenant. He also connects them to two cities: the earthly Jerusalem and the Heavenly Jerusalem. Hagar is figurative for Mount Sinai and the earthly Jerusalem – both being in bondage.

To develop what Paul is saying, we need to consider what happened at Mount Sinai and the earthly Jerusalem. In the first example, found in Exodus chapters 19-24, God prepared the Israelites to go up on the mountain to meet with their God. When the long blast sounded, they were supposed to go up to meet God. HE wanted them to come up on the Mountain and see Him so that they would not fall into sin.

“18 All the people perceived the thunderings, the lightnings, the sound of the trumpet, and the mountain smoking. When the people saw it, they trembled, and stayed at a distance. 19 They said to Moses, ‘Speak with us yourself, and we will listen; but don’t let God speak with us, lest we die.’ 20 Moses said to the people, ‘Don’t be afraid, for God has come to test you, and that his fear may be before you, that you won’t sin’ (Ex. 20:18-20, WEB).

However, the Israelites were afraid and sent Moses up instead. “(I stood between the Lord and you at that time, to shew you the word of the Lord: for ye were afraid by reason of the fire, and went not up into the mount;) saying…” (Deut. 5:5, KJV, bold emphasis mine).

The New Testament confirms that the people fell into disobedience because of sin. “For indeed we have had good news preached to us, even as they also did, but the word they heard didn’t profit them, because it wasn’t mixed with faith by those who heard” (Hebrews 4:2, WEB).

The people shrunk back from God at Mount Sinai. What happened next? The people fell into sin at the Golden Calf incident. The Tablets of the Covenant were broken by Moses, and he had to get another set. After this incident, the people kept falling away from God and nearly all of them died in the desert.

The Israelites disobeyed God and were given over to statutes and laws that they could not easily live by. “24 because they had not obeyed my laws but had rejected my decrees and desecrated my Sabbaths, and their eyes lusted after their parents’ idols. 25 So I gave them other statutes that were not good and laws through which they could not live” (Ezekiel 20:24-25, NIV).

Thus, Hagar represents Mount Sinai. At this mountain, the people disobeyed the Lord. They were afraid, and it led to sin. The incident with Hagar arose out of fear that there would be no male heir to Abraham. Both Abraham and Sarah were afraid that they would not have a child. It has been a source of conflict for the promise children of Isaac ever since.

In the same manner, Jerusalem in Paul’s time was in slavery with her children. This has two applications. First, the Romans were ruling the region, and the people did not have political sovereignty. This came due to disobedience about 110-120 years earlier.

Secondly, the people also rejected Jesus in a similar manner to the Israelites at Mount Sinai.

“Jerusalem, Jerusalem, who kills the prophets and stones those who are sent to her! How often I would have gathered your children together, even as a hen gathers her chicks under her wings, and you would not!” (Matthew 23:37, WEB).

Similar to the incident at Mount Sinai, Jesus drew the people to Himself, but they rejected Him. They didn’t have faith (Matthew 23:23). And they remained slaves to sin, which Jesus explained:

“31 To the Jews who had believed him, Jesus said, ‘If you hold to my teaching, you are really my disciples. 32 Then you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free.’ 33 They answered him, ‘We are Abraham’s descendants and have never been slaves of anyone. How can you say that we shall be set free?’ 34 Jesus replied, ‘Very truly I tell you, everyone who sins is a slave to sin. 35 Now a slave has no permanent place in the family, but a son belongs to it forever.’” (John 8:31-34, NIV).

Jesus’ words helps us understand that a person could be Abraham’s descendant and still be a slave – meaning a slave to sin.

There is yet another way to confirm the meaning of the verses in Galatians 4. One great thing about Paul’s writings is that we can compare them with each other and clarify the meaning of certain terms and phrases.

In Romans 6:15-19, Paul talks about being enslaved either to sin or righteousness. In this discourse, we receive even more clarity about Galatians 4.

“15 What then? Shall we sin because we are not under law but under grace? Certainly not! 16 Do you not know that to whom you present yourselves slaves to obey, you are that one’s slaves whom you obey, whether of sin leading to death, or of obedience leading to righteousness? 17 But God be thanked that though you were slaves of sin, yet you obeyed from the heart that form of doctrine to which you were delivered. 18 And having been set free from sin, you became slaves of righteousness. 19 I speak in human terms because of the weakness of your flesh. For just as you presented your members as slaves of uncleanness, and of lawlessness leading to more lawlessness, so now present your members as slaves of righteousness for holiness” (NKJV).

Paul explained that a person is either a slave of uncleanness and lawlessness or a slave to its opposite – holiness and righteousness. The Greek word translated as lawlessness is anomia, and it means the absence of God’s Law or transgression of God’s Law. It is the same word used in I John 3:4.  

These verses corroborate perfectly with Galatians 4. We can clearly connect the disobedience of the Israelites at and after Mount Sinai with the definition of sin to slavery in Romans 6. In other words, everyone is a slave to something.

If we remain slaves to sin, we cannot inherit God’s promises for our lives. Hagar was a slave, the Israelites at Mount Sinai chose to remain slaves to sin, and Jerusalem rejected the Savior who could free them.

Galatians 5:1-5

The last verse usually employed to imply that the Law of God is bondage is Galatians 5:1-5.

“1 Stand firm therefore in the liberty by which Christ has made us free, and don’t be entangled again with a yoke of bondage. 2 Behold, I, Paul, tell you that if you receive circumcision, Christ will profit you nothing. 3 Yes, I testify again to every man who receives circumcision that he is a debtor to do the whole law. 4 You are alienated from Christ, you who desire to be justified by the law. You have fallen away from grace. 5 For we, through the Spirit, by faith wait for the hope of righteousness” (WEB).

The interpretation of this verse is usually misunderstood based on one detail. Many people assume this entire letter was written to a group of Jewish people ‘going back’ to observing the Law. This is not true.

Consider for a moment that circumcision was discussed in the passage above. If these words were addressed to Jewish people, then they would have already been circumcised. There would be no need to say this. This fact alone discounts the conclusion that these verses are connected to Jewish people ‘going back’ to observance of God’s commandments. When we read Acts chapter 13:13-48, when Paul is in Galatia, we learn that there were many Gentiles who received the message of Jesus Christ.

So what is the ‘yoke of bondage’ discussed in Galatians 5? Romans 6:15-19 gave us the answer. It was the yoke of slavery to sin that the people experienced before salvation (notice the word ‘again’). Prior to becoming believers, the Gentiles tried to earn their salvation by works. By viewing circumcision as the means to salvation, they were engaging in the same attitude and were in effect saying that the sacrifice of Jesus was not enough to pay for their sins. This means that they would have to obey the law perfectly without error from that point forward as no sacrifice would remain for them (Hebrews 10:26).

Paul then said that it is by the SPIRIT and FAITH that we hope of righteousness comes about in our lives This subject is clearly connected to the end of the previous chapter. Remember the mistake made by the Israelites – they did not combine the good news with faith (Hebrews 4:2, discussed above). The same issue was present in this case. Justification for sin can only come through Jesus’ blood (Romans 5:9). Our good works arise out of walking in the Spirit and by faith.

Later in the chapter, Paul explains the slavery to their flesh that will come about by human effort (Gal. 5:13, 19-21). He then discusses the fruits of the Spirit and walking in the Spirit (verses 22-24). Concerning the fruits of the Spirit, he said: “against such things there is no law.” In other words, walking by the Spirit of God leads to behavior that does not contradict the Law of God.

As we can see from these verses, there is no evidence that the Law of God is bondage. Such claims are based upon assumptions made about Bible verses and not the meaning of those verses. God did not give His people sin. The Law is holy, righteous, and spiritual (Rom. 7:12-14). It is not burdensome. It is easy to follow – but we do so by faith in Him and walking by His Spirit and not our own carnal understanding – Romans 8:1-8.

The Law gives us freedom defined by God.

Kelly McDonald, Jr.

BSA President – www.biblesabbath.org

If the Foundations Be Destroyed Foundations of Science

by David Rives

“If the foundations be destroyed, what can the righteous do? While the Bible plays a much less central role in Science today, many of the greatest minds in Science had the solid foundation of belief in a Creator.

The astronomer Johannes Kepler spent most of his time in Austria, and in Prague, where he pioneered much of the work on planetary motion.

Kepler said that “Geometry, coeternal with God… gave God the pattern… by which he laid out the world so that it might be best and most beautiful and finally most like the Creator.”

Realizing that through his work with telescopes, he was witnessing things that had never before been seen, Kepler said: “God himself has waited six thousand years for his work to be seen.” He is known to have prayed: “I thank thee my Creator and my Lord, that Thou hast given me this joy in thy Creation, this thrill in the works of Thy hand”…”

(this article is an excerpt from the November–December 2012 edition of the Sabbath Sentinel)

To read the rest of this article, which starts on page 15, click this link: https://biblesabbath.org/media/TSSNovDec2012.pdf

Sabbath Meditation #36 – Focusing on the Unseen
by Kelly McDonald, Jr.

“While we look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen; for the things which are seen are temporal; but the things which are not seen are eternal” (2 Cor. 4:18).

“Set your affection on things above, not on things on the earth” (Colossians 3:2).

“Through faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which do appear” (Hebrews 11:3).

As we have reviewed in previous meditations, the Sabbath was first established as a memorial of Creation (click here to read more about this). It reminds us of creation and the God who made it all. However, the seen world was made from that which is unseen (Hebrews 11:3).

As humans, it is easy to trust in our human effort and the works of our hands. We can see the effects that our labor has on the material world.

Unlike the works of our hands, the Sabbath is unseen. The God who made all things is also unseen to the carnal human eye. You cannot see rest in the way that you can see the works of your hands. To the carnal mind, refraining from our work and labor does not appear to produce anything. This is why we worship Him in Spirit and in truth. Spiritual things must be discerned spiritually (I Cor. 2:9-16).

There is an unseen realm which is vitally important to our physical and spiritual lives; it involves focusing on the unseen God. He wants us to feel accomplished in rest through Him on the seventh day instead of feeling accomplished through the process and results of human labor. Our accomplishments are not the end goal of life – we do not want to put our trust in human effort. There are things in life we need that cannot be earned by work – such as rest and the spiritual connection to God. The unseen God provides that for us.

Colossians 3:2 reminds us to set our affections or desires on heavenly things rather than things which are limited solely to the earth. If we were to literally translate this verse, it would read: “Keep on setting your affection on things above (more and more), not on things on the earth.” Life can get mundane and we can get bogged down by the cares of this age, we must continually remind ourselves to focus on the things above. It is a continual process, not a one-time event. The Sabbath gives us this opportunity on a weekly basis.

In our humanness, it is harder to trust in what we cannot see – including what it will do in us and for us – than it is to trust what we can do on our own. We are called to walk by faith and not by sight (2 Cor. 5:7). The Sabbath teaches us that there is something greater than what our hands can produce with our own human effort. The Sabbath calls us to set aside self and focus on the unseen spiritual realm where God presently dwells. The Sabbath is a reminder to focus on the things which are unseen.

Selah.

Kelly McDonald, Jr.

BSA President – www.biblesabbath.org

Creation, Flood, and Covenant — in the Bible and Before

By R. Herbert, Ph.D

“Beginning in the 19th century, archaeologists excavating the ancient Mesopotamian civilizations of the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, in what is modern day Iraq, and in other areas of the Near East, began to find libraries of clay tablets inscribed with the Mesopotamians’ cuneiform writing. When some of these texts were later translated, they were found to be stories that were similar to biblical narratives such as those of the creation and flood, sometimes matching those stories in even their small details.(1) Many Victorian era churchmen hailed these discoveries as independent proof of the Bible stories, but atheists and agnostics soon began to stress that many of the Mesopotamian stories were far older than the oldest biblical books and that they were more likely the original stories on which the later biblical narratives were based. So what is the believer to make of these ancient stories, and what is their true relationship with the stories found in the Bible? In this article, examples from three categories of ancient texts will be briefly examined — focusing only on their similarities with biblical stories — before we try to answer these questions.

Creation Stories

There is no single story in Mesopotamian literature that exactly matches the Hebrew creation account, but the similarities that exist between a number of Sumerian and Babylonian stories and that of the Bible cannot be ignored.(2) In one early Sumerian story, “Enki and Ninmah,” for example, the gods become tired with the work of forming the earth’s surface and complain to Namma, the primeval sea, who persuades her son Enki, the god of water, to create a substitute to free the gods from their labor. Enki instructs Namma to take some clay which she apparently places in her womb, eventually giving birth to the first humans.(1) Interestingly, both in this Mesopotamian story and in Atrahasis, as well as in Genesis 1–2, the creation of humans is told in two versions — first a general version, followed by a more specifically detailed retelling of the story.(3) Other Sumerian stories show similar general parallels…”

(this article is an excerpt from the Sept-Oct 2013 edition of the Sabbath Sentinel)

To read the rest of this article, which starts on page 18, click this link: https://biblesabbath.org/media/TSS_2013_Sept-Oct-563.pdf

The Passagini: Sabbath Keepers of the Middle Ages (Part 2 of 2)

By Kelly McDonald, Jr.

In part one of this series, we reviewed the historical factors that led to non-conformist groups arising in the time period commonly called the Middle Ages (CLICK HERE to read part 1). By the mid-twelfth century, these groups had defined beliefs and made a significant impact on people in Western Europe. Their impact was so significant that the Roman Catholic supports wrote many works against them.

Among the groups of this time was the Passagini, a Christian group who kept the Sabbath and other commandments of God. There are three key primary sources relating to the Passagini which date to near the same time as these papal letters. All three authors are from Lombardy, and they provide us with valuable insight into their beliefs.

Among the men labeled as a heretic in Lombardy was a man named Bonacursus (which in Latin means “good journey” or “good course”). He was a teacher of the Cathari in that region. At some point, he turned away from this sect and joined the Roman Church. He then composed a work against his former associates and other groups entitled “Against the Cathari.” His writing is generally dated between 1184 and 1210; JP Migne lists the date as 1190.

In the introduction of this work, Bonacursus discussed how he was formerly a teacher of the Cathari in the city of Milan among the public. He followed this opening segment with a section against the Cathars (Adversus Haereticos Qui Cathari Vocantur – “Against the Heretics who are called Cathari”). In it, he explained their beliefs and then tried to refute them using the Roman Church perspective.

After the section against the Cathari, Bonacursus transitioned to a discourse against a group called the Pasaggi (Adversus Haereticos Qui Pasaggi Nuncupantur, ibid, p 784). This was another name for the Passagini. He wrote an introduction and five chapters against them. Below we have an English translation of the introduction, which is a decent summary of their beliefs:

“Not a few, but many know what are the errors of those who are called Pasagini, and how nefarious their belief and doctrine are. But because there are some who do not know them, it does not annoy me to write what I think of them, partly from precaution and for their salvation, and partly for their shame and confusion, in order that their foolishness might become more widely known, and that they might be the more condemned and despised of all. As we ought to know the good in order to do it, so likewise should we know the evil that we might shun it…Let those who are not yet acquainted with them, please note how perverse their belief and doctrine are. First, they teach that we should obey the law of Moses according to the letter– the Sabbath, and circumcision, and the legal precepts still being in force…Furthermore, to increase their error, they condemn and reject all the church Fathers, and the whole Roman church. But because they seek to base their errors upon the witness of the New Testament and the prophets, let us slay them with their own sword by the aid of the grace of Christ, as David once slew Goliath” (English from Andrews and Conradi, pp 547-548; Latin from Migne, PL 204:784-794).

In the introduction to this section, Bonacursus testified that many people knew about the Passagini. This may be one way for us to establish that the group had exposure to the broader population. In his discourse, we learn that they literally observed the Sabbath. They rejected all the church fathers and the entire institution of the Roman Church. They used the Law, prophets, and New Testament to affirm their beliefs.

Another primary source on this subject was written in Cremona, Lombardy. Summa contra haereticos was written about 1200 and is usually ascribed to Praepositinus of Cremona (original Latin documents compiled by Garvin and Corbett, The Summa Contra Haereticos by Praepositinus of Cremona). The main brunt of his writing is to refute the teachings and practices of the Cathars and the Passagini. He addressed each group separately.

Praepositinus wrote fourteen chapters about the Passagini. Among them, we learn that they believed that the entire law of God was still applicable, except sacrifices (chapter six). In chapter eight, we learn that they literally practiced the Sabbath.

We also learn that this group observed the Old Testament to the letter, including Sabbath, foods, and circumcision. Their basis for this belief was Matthew 5:17-20, Romans 3:31, and Romans 7:12-14. They believed that the law and the gospel were supposed to be simultaneously observed; they believed in both the decalogue and the faith of Christ.

In chapter nine of this work, Praepositinus described how they kept Passover literally on the fourteenth of Nissan. In chapter eleven, we learn that the Passagini declared the laws of catholic church null void and labeled them as human institutions not put in place by God based on Isaiah 29:13 (which says that the doctrines and commandments of men were worshiping God in vain). They viewed Catholic rules as null and void on the basis that no one could edit the Law of God or add to it and that no one should preach another gospel (using the verses Matthew 5:17, Gal. 1:4-7, and Rev. 22:18).

There is a third document discussed by Döllinger and Muratori under the name G. Bergamensis (although I have seen G. Pergamensis as the heading) with a date of about 1230 AD. The author’s first name was likely Gregory or Giovanni. It was written in Bergamo, which was another city in Lombardy. Garvin and Corbett list this document as belonging to Praepositinus’s work rather than being separate, which would make the dating a little earlier. We have an English translation of this document below:

“After what has been said of the Cathari, there still remains the sect of the Pasagini. They teach Christ to be the first and pure creature; that the Old Testament festivals are to be observed– circumcision, distinction of foods, and in nearly all other matters, save the sacrifices, the Old Testament is to be observed as literally as the New– circumcision is to be kept according to the letter. They say that no good person before the advent of Christ descended into the lower regions; and that there is no one in the lower regions and in paradise until now, nor will there be until sentence has been rendered on the day of Judgement” (Andrews and Condradi, pp 548-549).

These three works – Bonacursus, Praepositinus, and G. Bergamensis – serve as the main sources for our knowledge about the practices and beliefs of the Passagini. This fascinating group was extremely knowledgeable in the Bible and utilized a literal interpretation of it. They took this view to its logical conclusion and practiced accordingly. One might consider them the best example of sola scriptura of the Middle Ages.

Because they practiced circumcision, this group was also called the Circumcisi or Circumcisos. Between 1235 and 1238, Salvo Burci composed a lengthy work against heretics. Among the groups he discussed as a minor sect was the Circumcisers, who claimed that both the Old Law and New Law were to be literally observed. This echoes comments about the Passagini from previous decades and adds more credence to the idea that the Circumcisers and Passagini were one and the same group (Wakefield and Evans, p 276). Salvo lived in Piacenza, which is near Lombardy. His writing indicates that the influence of the Passagini was likely exerted beyond the regions normally associated with them (Milan and Cremona). 

A manuscript commonly dated to between 1225 and 1250 has been found that briefly reviewed the names and beliefs of heretical groups as well as attempts to refute them. Though it is incomplete, its contents are still significant to this study. In chapter 3, sections 20-22, the Passagini and Circumcisi were mentioned together. The work described them as literally observing the Old Testament, the Sabbath, and circumcision (Wakefield and Evans, pp 296-300). If the Passagini and Circumcisi were not one and the same group, they were definitely considered two branches of the same tree, so to speak.

What Happened to the Passagini?

One question we must ask is: What happened to the Passagini?

In the 1200s, the Roman Church increased their attacks against non-conformist groups. They enlisted secular rulers to commit acts of violence including theft and murder against these groups. This led to the Albigensian Crusade, which started in 1209. Tens of thousands of people died in France because they had a different belief system than that of the Roman Church.

The coordination between the Roman Church and the temporal rulers of Europe led to enactment of severe decrees and laws that deprived all people labeled as ‘heretics’ of private property, rendered them intestate (could not receive or pass an inheritance), and any safety. Anyone was allowed to take their property without recourse. Those who helped these groups in any way was subject to these same penalties. Death was also rendered to those who refused to recant. An example of such draconian laws are the laws of Frederick II against heresy in 1238-1239 (CLICK HERE to read).

In 1236, Pope Gregory IX issued a chapter against the Patarenos (contra Paraernos) which begins excommunicamus & anathematizamus. The letter excommunicated and anathemized the “Catharos, Patarenos, the Poor of Lyons (Waldenses), Passagani, Josephinos, Arnoldists, Speronistas, and all other names that heretics may go by…” (Latin: Labbe, 11i:334-335). The content of this document is important because it broadened the search for heretics to anyone who differed in their lifestyle from that which was approved by the Roman Church. Thus, the net was widened more to catch non-conformists. An excerpt from it is found below:

“Likewise if any person knows any heretics, or such who hold private conventicles, or who differ in their Life and Manners from the Conversation of the Faithful, let him endeavour to discover them to his Confessor, or someone else, who he believes may give Notice to the Prelate, otherwise let him be excommunicated” (Limborch (1816), pp 308-309).

Eventually, the inquisition was more formalized and legalized with the backing of civil force. Heretical groups were systematically hunted down in many areas, which over the centuries drove them into a few enclaves of hiding.

Despite these developments, secular rulers in some areas protected these non-conformist groups. This was certainly true of Lombardy, which was the chief seat of the Passagini. The Lombard temporal rulers protected groups deemed heretical up until the early fourteenth century (about 1325 AD).

It is not clear what happened to this group of Sabbath keepers. After the mid-thirteenth century, they seem to disappear from the pages of history. With the increase of papal decrees condemning heretics and the action of temporal rulers against them, it is likely that a combination of factors contributed to their disappearance.

First of all, the increase in papal and temporal action against heretics caused some to go into exile in remote places. Secondly, these same actions caused some to give up these beliefs. Third, some likely died for their faith. Fourth, some likely joined with larger groups that had more resources and connections to other places in Europe where they could flee and still practice their faith or some resemblance of it.

One interesting possibility is that they eventually joined with a sect of the Waldenses in northern Italy. In the seventeenth century, the famous Roman Catholic writer Du Change viewed the Passagini as a sect of the Waldenses. This conclusion was based upon an examination of primary sources available to him. This is certainly a possibility, but it is still not clear.

We commend the Passagini for their observance of the commandments of God and faith in God and Christ. They contended for the faith in a time when people such as them could not own private property. They serve as the closest example in the Middle Ages to the concept of sola scriptura or Scripture alone.

To read more about the Passagini and the possibility that they joined with the Waldenses, be sure to check out our free book The Passagini: Sabbatarians of the Middle Ages (CLICK HERE to download).

God Bless!

Kelly McDonald, Jr.

BSA President – www.biblesabbath.org

Bibliography

Andrews, J.N. and Conradi, L.B. History of the Sabbath and the First Day of the Week. Fourth Ed. Washington, DC: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 1912. pp 547-549.

Muratorio, Ludovico Antonio. Antiquitates Italicae Medii aevi sive Dissertationes. Vol. 5. Milan, 1741. pp 151-152.

Döllinger, Johann. Beiträge zur Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters. Vol 2. Munich, 1890. pp 374-375.

Garvin, Joseph N. and Corbett, James A. The Summa Contra Haereticos by Praepositinus of Cremona. Original Latin with manuscript notes. University of Notre Dame Press, 1958. pp 75-184, 158-223.

Limborch, Philip A. The History of the Inquisition. Translated into English by Samuel Chandler. Abridged Version. London, 1816. pp 308-309.

Migne, J. P. Patrologiae Cursus Completus. Series Secunda. Patrologiae Latina. Vol. 204. Paris, 1855. pp 779-794.

Sacrosancta Concilia Ad Regiam Editionem. Philip Labbe and Gabr. Cossartii. Vol. 11, pt. 1. Paris, 1671. pp 334-336, 406, 616-623.

Wakefield, Walter L. and Evans, Austin P. Heresies of the High Middle Ages. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969. pp 277-279, 296-300.

The Passagini: Italian Sabbath Keepers of the Middle Ages (Part 1 of 2)

By Kelly McDonald, Jr.

In the eleventh century, the beginning of religious change sprung up in parts of Europe. From this movement emerged several well-known groups such as the Cathari, Albigenses, and Waldenses. Among the lessor known groups from this period were the Passagini (also spelled Passagii, Passagenes, Passaginos, etc.). They were a Sabbath-keeping group which formed in Italy sometime in the mid to late twelfth century. They are the earliest example of a group which held to the concept of sola scriptura. In this two-part series, we will review some of the events leading up to their appearance as well as their beliefs.

Between 1022 and 1056, a few Roman Church councils condemned newly formed groups in France and Italy as heretics. At that time in history, anyone who did not fully adhere to the teachings of the Roman Church was labeled a heretic. Sometimes they were not given a name while at other times they were mislabeled. Some of them were burned at the stake.

Among these councils were the Council of Rheims, which was held in 1049. It excommunicated new heretics who sprung up in France (also called Gaul). No name is specifically ascribed to them. “…et quia novi haeretici in Gallacianis partibus emergant; cos excommunicavit, illis additis…” (Mansi, 19:742; Landon, 2:71-72).

It appeared that the Roman Church was going to take serious action against these groups, but suddenly their quest was put on pause. For the next one-hundred years or more, the Roman Church was mired in corruption and conflict with the renewed Western Roman Empire. This prevented unified action against these non-conformist groups. They grew and developed their own belief system.

As groups coalesced in certain cities and regions, variations of beliefs developed (likely due to local influences). Some beliefs were held among all these groups. First, they recognized the corruption and moral decay in the Roman Church. Secondly, the average person was disconnected with the institution of the Roman Church; they thought it was not fulfilling its purpose. Third, they wanted a simplified belief system where they could connect to God without the complicated traditions of Rome. This included translations of the Scriptures in their own language.  

The Roman Church and Western Roman Empire mended their feud in about 1179. In 1184, the Council of Verona was held. During it, Pope Lucius III presented a letter to Emperor Frederick I (called Barbarossa). The title of the Epistle was “Against the Heretics” and the subtitle was ‘Ad Abolendam’, which in Latin means to abolish. The Pope called upon ‘his dear son’ Frederick and other secular rulers to suppress the spread of group deemed heretical. An excerpt of the letter is found below:

“We, therefore, supported by the power, and presence, of our most dear son Frederic, the illustrious Emperor of the Romans, semper Augustus, with the common consent of our brethren, and of other Patriarchs, Archbishops, and many Princes, who have assembled from various parts of the world, have, with the general sanction of this present decree, risen up against those heretics, to whom divers names have ascribed the profession of various errors, and, by the tenor of this constitution, with apostolical authority, we condemn all heresy, howsoever it may be named…In the first place, therefore we lay under a perpetual anathema, the Cathari, Patarini, and those who falsely call themselves Humiliati, or poor men of Lyons, Passagini, Josepini, and Arnaldistae; and since some, having a form of godliness, but, as the apostle has said, ‘denying- the power of it’, have assumed to themselves the office of preaching—though the same Apostle says, ‘how shall they preach, except they be sent ?’—we include, in the same perpetual anathema, all who shall have presumed to preach, either publicly, or privately, either being forbidden, or not sent, or not having the authority of the Apostolic See (IE the Roman Church), or of the Bishop of the diocese…” (English translation from Maitland, pp 176-180; Latin found in Labbe, vol 10, pp 1737-1742). To read the entire contents of Pope Lucius’ letter, CLICK HERE.

The Pope accused these peoples of ‘having a form of godliness, but denying the power of it’ (2 Tim. 3:1-5). The Roman Church did not recognize people who preached the gospel message unless they had been sent by their representatives!

Later in this letter, the Pope laid the foundation for the inquisition. Those suspected to be part of these groups would be turned over to Roman Church authorities, such as Bishops, for examination. Those who denied the charges and then were later found to be guilty were immediately turned over to secular judges for punishment. Their goods were confiscated and given to a local congregation which was loyal to Rome.

The decree further called upon all secular rulers to help the cause by seeking out the aforesaid heretics and turning them over to Roman Church authorities. If a ruler did not, then their titles were stripped, their people excommunicated, and lands were taken away from them. 

Lucius’ letter shows the absolute control the Roman Church desired to have over every individual. Moreover, it illustrates the lengths to which this institution would go to impose their will on other people groups. This letter became repeated by later popes and served as a foundational part of the inquisition, which would be formally introduced in the thirteenth century.

This decree set a terrible precedent that would influence Europe for centuries to come. Many thousands of innocent people would die just for being different.

The groups condemned were as follows: Cathars, Patarinos, Humiliati, the poor of Lyons (this was another name for the Waldenses), Passaginos, Josephinos, and Arnoldists. Most of these groups started in northern Italy. One word of caution. While it is convenient, we do not want to lump all these groups together. This was a mistake of past some researchers on this subject. Some of these groups held to some beliefs that definitely contradicted each other.

While several of the groups mentioned in “Ad Abolendum” did not have many or any known Sabbath keepers (at that time), there was one group that was known exclusively to keep the Sabbath and other aspects of God’s law. They were called the Passagani (also called the Passagii and Passagenes, Passaginos, etc).  

In part two of this series, we will look at their beliefs and what happened to them!
CLICK HERE to read part two!

God Bless!

Kelly McDonald, Jr.

BSA President – www.biblesabbath.org

Bibliography

Landon, Edward. A Manual of Councils of the Holy Catholic Church. Vol. 1. Edinburgh, 1909. pp 60, 150-151.

Landon, Edward. A Manual of Councils of the Holy Catholic Church. Vol. 2. Edinburgh, 1909. pp 9, 54-55, 57-59, 92-93, 103-107, 110-112, 145-146.

Maitland, S.R. Facts and Documents Illustrative of the History, Doctrine, and Rites of the Ancient Albigenses and Waldenses. London, 1832. pp 176-180.

Sacrosancta Concilia Ad Regiam Editionem. Philip Labbe and Gabr. Cossartii. Vol. 10. Paris, 1671. pp 1737-1742.

Sacrorum Conciliorum. Nova Et Amplissima Collectio. Editio Novissima. Joannes Dominicus Mansi. Vol. 19. Venice, 1774. pp 742, 849.

Beyond the Days

by Aubrey L. Duncan

“Perhaps the best known and most quoted passage of Scripture of the entire Bible is John 3:16-17. It reads: “…For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish, but have everlasting life…For God sent not his Son into the world to condemn the world; but that the world through him might be saved….” This passage is so simple, yet so profound, but grossly misunderstood. Most people, particularly Christians, misinterpret this passage to make it relate to people that came into the world after the birth of Jesus Christ. They somehow believe and teach that salvation since Jesus’ first advent is obtained differently than salvation before Jesus came to earth. This is a grave misunderstanding of Holy Writ. It is from this perspective of salvation that most of the conflict and confusion in Christendom, including that of the true Sabbath, arises.

The apostles and members of the early church (the Way) had no such conflict or confusion about the Sabbath or about Christ and His mission. They understood clearly who He was and what His mission was about, i.e. God in the flesh, stooping to save all mankind, before and after His earthly sojourn. Jesus repeatedly pointed to the Old Testament Scriptures to help His followers and His enemies understand who He was and what His mission entailed. Here are two classic examples: “…Search the scriptures; for in them ye think ye have eternal life: and they are they which testify of me…” (John 5:39). “…And beginning at Moses and all the prophets, He expounded unto them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself…” (Luke 24:27).

But how could Jesus save all humanity when He only appeared on earth some 2,000 years ago? Simply, because He is fully God and fully man. The learned apostle Paul calls it a great mystery (1 Timothy 3:16). The prophet Micah prophesied that He is from everlasting to everlasting: “…But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, yet out of thee shall He come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel; whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting…” (Micah 5:2)

(this article is an excerpt from the Jan-Feb 2013 edition of the Sabbath Sentinel)To read the rest of this article, which starts on page 6, click this link: https://biblesabbath.org/media/TSS_2013_Jan-Feb_LowResProof2.pdf

Greetings Everyone!

In this post, we are sharing the 10 most read Sabbath Sentinel online articles from the calendar year 2021, with a link to each article. Just click on the name of the article to read more about that subject!

This will allow you to go back and review most of our finest content!

#1 – March 7, 321 AD – Constantine’s Sunday Law

#2 – Council of Laodicea – 364 AD

#3 – Why Was December 25^th Chosen for the Birth of Christ?

#4 – Did Constantine Change the Sabbath?

#5 – A New Theory on the Mark of the Beast

#6 – Archaeological Evidence for the Life of Jesus

#7 – Martin Luther and the Sabbath

#8 – July 3, 321 AD – Constantine’s Second Sunday Law

#9 – New Booklet for Free Download! – “How Did Sunday Become the First Day of the Week?”

#10 – The Oldest Archaeological Reference to the Sabbath

Thanks for following our blog!

God Bless!

Kelly McDonald, Jr.

BSA President – www.biblesabbath.org